Stylistics of English
Denys Nykula <nykula@ukr.net>, junior at Kyiv International University, 035 Philology, correspondence course

Stylistics is the study of style in language. It is a branch of linguistics. It aims to describe and analyze lexical choices and literary structures used by writers to create specific effects on readers. Stylistics often focuses on the relationship between language, context, and interpretation. Stylistic analysis aims to examine the text as a whole, interpret it using logic and reasoning, and be replicable by other researchers.¹

The goals of stylistics are to identify the principles that explain the particular style choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of language. Stylistics focuses on what doesn't conform to the standard; on physiclal, socio-cultural and pragmatic context of the text; on the time in which it was written; and on features associated with the writer or speaker.²

The primary method of stylistics is to analyze the habitual choices of sounds, words, and syntactic patterns that convey the author's personality or fundamental outlook. Another method is to analyze relationships between the societal context of the text, and its form.³

Stylistics explores the text's phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Stylistic analysis also involves identifying and interpreting literary devices such as metaphor, simile, and imagery. It pays attention to diction, jargon and rhythm.⁴

Besides philological methods, researchers of stylistic apply statistical analysis. Earlier methods used in stylistic methodology were normative and prescriptive, while modern methods are largely descriptive.⁵

Semiotics is the study of signs and their use in communication. From the point of semiotics, stylistic features of a text help derive its meaning. Style is a way of using signs that is characteristic of an individual or their culture. Style can be emotional or aesthetic, but also helps communicate additional information quickly and efficiently.⁶

A popular notion of style among teachers of language is that style is a technique of expression. In this sense style is defined as the ability to write clearly, correctly and in a manner calculated to interest the reader. Style stems from the habits of one person and the language habits shared by a group of people at one time or over a period of time.⁷

Language refers to the words we use and how we use them to share ideas and get what we want. Language includes what words mean, how to make new words, how to put words together, and what we should say at different times.

Speech, on the other hand, is how we say sounds and words. It's how we make speech sounds using the mouth, lips, and tongue (articulation); how we use our vocal folds and breath to make sounds (voice); and how we repeat sounds or pause while talking (fluency).⁸

Speech activity relies on using segmental and suprasegmental units. Sound, syllable, phonetic word, syntagma (tone group) and utterance (phrase) are segmental units, which means we can extract each of them from speech as a distinct unit. Suprasegmental units are: tone, accent, speed and duration — speech relies on them to connect segments.⁹

Syntagmatics refers to the study of the linear relationships between units in a language. A syntagma is composed of a series of words that are ordered in a particular way, and carries a specific meaning.¹⁰

Paradigmatics refers to the study of relationships between signs that can be substituted for one another in a given context, often based on similarity or contrast.¹¹

Contrastive linguistics studies aims to identify similarities and differences between texts, or even whole languages. Contrast is used to highlight the differences.¹²

The aim refers to the overall goal or intention. Function refers to the role or purpose that something serves in achieving the aim.¹³

The aims of pragmatics include understanding how language is used in context to communicate effectively. Pragmatics studies how speakers use language to communicate their intentions, besides literal meanings and grammatical structures. It examines how context influences the interpretation of language.¹⁴

Regarding the linguistic aims, see «The subject-matter and aims of stylistics».

The main function of a language system is to express thoughts and feelings. It is used to communicate information, establish relationships, and influence others.¹⁵

Speech activity aims to convey emotion, will and aesthetic; establish contact, name objects; and to correct and supplement non-verbal activity.¹⁶

Onomatopoeia is a device that imitates sounds in nature, by things, people, or animals. Onomatopoeic words can be direct (e.g. buzz, bang) or indirect (e.g. using sounds to convey a meaning).

Alliteration is a device that repeats similar consonant sounds in close succession, in order create a melodic effect and add expressiveness to language.

Assonance is the repetition of similar vowel sounds (e.g. wear and tear).

Consonance is the repetition of the same consonant in close succession (not at the beginning of words).⁷

Words with a lexico-stylistic paradigm are characterized by their stylistic colouring or connotation, and they belong to certain functional styles or spheres of communication. They tend to have synonyms and antonyms. They are qualifying and can be used to characterize different referents. They reference objects indirectly.

Stylistically coloured words can be grouped into: colloquial vs. bookish vocabulary; general literary vs. dialectic vocabulary; contemporary vs. archaic vocabulary. One word can belong to two or more groups.¹⁷

Expressive means and stylistic devices are used to make language more expressive and emotive. They make speech more interesting and convincing.¹⁸ They rely on indirect meaning and figures of speech: metaphor, metonymy, antonomasia (renaming), hyperbole, litotes and irony.¹⁹

Figures of speech are words or phrases that deviate from literal or ordinary language. They are used to create a particular effect or convey meaning in a non-literal way. They add depth, complexity, and meaning to style. They help to create vivid imagery and convey emotions.²⁰

Pronouns can be used stylistically through a figure of speech called nosism, which is the use of the plural pronoun «we» instead of «I». For example, it is common to see «we» used in professional or editorial writing, though in journalism it now is limited to self-conscious and humorous contexts. It can also be used to create a sense of modesty or to avoid direct responsibility. Sovereigns and rulers also historically used «we» instead of «I», which is called royal «we».²¹

Metaphoric usage of adverbs places additional meaning upon the verbs being supported: «he ran musically, beating out the rhythm». Adverbs can convert a simile or analogy into a metaphor: «he was tenacious, like a dog» — «he was doggedly tenacious».²²

Nouns can be used metaphorically through a process called anthimeria. In anthimeria, a part of speech is used as though it was a different part of speech. For example, a verb can be used as a noun: «I need to google that», «She had a real loving for animals»; an adjective can be used as a noun: «He completely cools the situation», an adverb can be used as a noun: «The within of the house was surprisingly spacious». Anthimeria can create emphasis, informality and stylistic flair.²³

Phraseology of the English language studies idioms and phrasal verbs.

An idiom is a group of words, the meaning of which is not directly related to the literal meanings of the individual words. Idioms express cultural ideas, emotions or common experiences. An example of indirect meaning in an idiom: «It's raining cats and dogs».

Phrasal verbs, extremely common in informal speech, combine a verb with one or two particles to create new meaning. For example, «give up», «turn on», «look after» or «find out». Phrasal verbs make one's English sound fluent, expressive and natural.²⁴

Phraseology performs the stylistic functions of establishing a cultural identity, providing a shorthand for shared experiences, saving time, and establishing casual and friendly rapport.²⁵

Archaic words are words that are no longer commonly used in modern language. They can create a sense of formality or an elevated tone, evoke a specific time period, indicate a character's age or origin, and maintain a sense of tradition and reverence. Besides words («ere» — before, «betwixt» — between), there exist archaic phrases («in sooth» — in truth) and grammatical structures («thou/thee» — you). Using an older spelling of a common word, for example «hath» — has, can create a more authentic historical feel.²⁶

Neologisms are new words or expressions that are created to convey a particular meaning or effect. Stylistic neologisms provide a new perspective or nuance of an already known element and show an affective or subjective reaction. Common ways to create stylistic neologisms in the informal register are gradational prefixes «extra-», «hyper-», affixes with semantic change «-ism», «pseudo-», and combine words with vulgar, colloquial or slang elements.²⁷

Colloquialisms («gonna» — going to, «y'all» — you all, «didn't» — did not) are used stylistically to create a sense of informality. They can make a text seem more conversational, set a tone or mood for it. They can add color, authenticity and a sense of realism to a character's speech. Regional colloquialisms help establish the setting and background of characters. Avoiding colloquialisms altogether can mark a character as sophisticated and well-educated.²⁸

Besides colloquialisms, another important conversational element with a stylistic function is slang («lit», «salty») — trendy or subcultural language, used by younger speakers or specific societal groups.²⁹

Fossil words are no longer commonly used in modern language but remain in certain phrases. They are words that have survived in fixed expressions: «to and fro», «without further ado».³⁰

Historical words have grown out of use because the items or phenomena they represent are no longer present in daily life. They can be sociopolitical, military, economical, or refer to household items.³¹

Injecting foreign words and phrases into English («mon ami», «from the vines of ugu») helps lend credibility to a story, embellish the narrative and transport the reader to an exotic setting.³²

Terminology refers to the specialized language in a particular field or profession. It encompasses the unique vocabulary and conventions commonly understood by enthusiasts in a specific area of knowledge. Technical terms can create a sense of accuracy and expertise.³³

Lexical neologisms are new words or expressions. They describe new concepts. Neologisms are used to add new meanings. Technological advances («television», «texting»), social and cultural factors («social distance», «jazz») are main drivers of word creation.³⁴

Parallelism is a literary device in which similar structures are used in two or more clauses or sentences. It is used stylistically to emphasize ideas or themes, suggest connections, highlight contrasts and add rhythm.³⁵

Chiasmus is a rhetorical device that involves a reversal of word order in two otherwise parallel phrases or sentences: «he knowingly led and we followed blindly», «oh you haven't, haven't you?». Many of historical texts are rich in chiasmus, for example the ancient Greek texts as well as the Old and New Testaments.³⁶

Anaphora involves the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases or sentences: «we cannot dedicate—we cannot consecrate—we cannot hallow—this ground». It is used for rhetorical or poetic effect.³⁷

Epistrophe means a word or expression is repeated at the end of successive phrases or sentences. It's also used for rhetorical or poetic effect: «of the people, by the people, for the people».³⁸

Ellipsis (…) is a punctuation mark used to show that something has been left out. It helps shorten text or create a specific tone. In academic and formal writing, ellipsis is used to remove irrelevant words from a quotation without changing its meaning: «The project was difficult… but we completed it successfully.» In informal writing or dialogue, ellipsis shows that a speaker is pausing or thinking: «Well… I don’t know what to say». It can also express doubt, suspense, or softness: «So… what happens next?».³⁹

Aposiopesis is a sudden, deliberate break or pause in speech: «I was going to tell you, but…». It leaves the thought unfinished, prompting the reader or listener to consider what might have been said. Aposiopesis is used for emotional impact, suspense, emphasis — as well as realism. People often trail off in real life.

Nominative sentences consist of only one noun or a phrase that functions as a noun. These sentences typically have no verb. They are used to assert the existence of objects or phenomena: «Road. Morning. Silence.»⁴⁰

Parataxis is a literary device that involves placing words or short, simple phrases side by side without conjunctions: «Melts in your mouth, not in your hands». Parataxis allows the reader to imagine the train of thought that leads from one idea to the next.⁴¹

Asyndeton is a stylistic choice that creates a sense of quickness, compression, and even urgency: «I came, I saw, I conquered». It is similar to parataxis in that it relies on the omission of coordinating conjunctions.⁴²

Repetition as a literary device is when multiple iterations of a word or phrase are in close proximity to each other. It provides clarity and emphasis, and highlights a deeper meaning.

Anadiplosis is when a phrase shows up at the end of one clause and the beginning of the next. This device is especially prevalent in the Bible: «In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. And the earth was without form, and void» — in this example it emphasizes the importance and outsized presence of the earth in the Genesis.⁴³

Tautology involves repetitive use of words with similar meanings: «repeat again», «shout it out loud». As a rhetorical device, it draws the reader's attention to a specific aspect of life.⁴⁴

Polysyndeton is when conjunctions are used repeatedly and in close succession within a sentence or passage: «She bought apples, and oranges, and bananas, and grapes». It helps the writer emphasize the individual importance of each element in the sentence.⁴⁵

Emphatic structures highlight a particular part of a sentence by changing the normal word order. Inversion is «verb, subject, object» in place of «subject, verb, object»: «Never in my life have I been so offended». Fronting is when some element goes to the front of the sentence: «So happy I was that I couldn't sleep». Cleft sentence involves an «it + be + phrase + that» pattern: «It was last night that the python ate a deer in the forest».⁴⁶

Parenthetical phrases are phrases that provide additional information to a sentence without changing its grammatical structure. They aren't essential to the sentence, but this doesn't mean their unimportant: «The employee, hoping to go home early, rushed her tasks».⁴⁷

Inverted sentences can be used to create a dramatic or formal tone. An inverted sentence moves part of the verb before the subject: «Are you ready?» This can be used in questions, after negative or limiting expressions, in formal conditionals or for dramatic description.⁴⁸

A syntactical split, or «stylistic comma» is a stylistic device that involves separating a phrase or clause, usually with commas, to create a pause. It adds emphasis or builds suspense. When used for introductory phrases, it prevents the reader from skimming too fast and missing the importance of the setup. It forces the reader to acknowlegde emotions, and offers them time for reflection.⁴⁹

Detached constructions are secondary parts of a sentence, placed formally independent of the world they logically refer to. This expressive means gives the part prominence and help it assume a greater degree of significance: «And he walked slowly past again, along the river — an evening of clear, quiet beauty, all harmony and comfort, except within his heart».⁵⁰

Parcellation is a stylistic device that involves dividing a sentence into smaller parts. These parts are often separated by pauses. Nominative sentences can be parcellated as well: «Double responsibility. Yours and mine».⁵¹

Subordination uses conjunctions (although, because, when, who, if) to connect one dependent clause to an independent clause, creating a complex sentence. It highlights the main clause while providing context: «Although she was tired, she continued».

Coordination uses conjunctions (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so) to connect two sentences with roughly equal ideas, creating a compound sentence. It suggests balance and equal weight: «She was tired, but she continued».^{52 , 53}

Antonomasia means substituing a descriptive phrase for a proper name, or vice versa: «the Bard» — Shakespeare, «the Big Apple» — «New York City»; a basketball player — «a young Michael Jordan». It delivers a punch of personality or essential traits without lengthy descriptions. It spotlights defining features, enhances memorability and forges cultural connections.^{54 , 55}

For antonomasia, two kinds of meanings must be realized in the word simultaneously. If only one meaning is contextual, there is no stylistic device: hooligan, boycott — former proper names that became common nouns.⁷

Personification is a literary technique that refers to giving human characteristics to animals, inanimate objects or forces. It creates imagery: «A clock glares at you», «Love wraps its arms around you». ⁵⁶

Allegory is a narrative that conveys a hidden meaning, usually through symbols and characters. In a symbolic allegory, a character has a recognizable identity autonomous from their message: Virgil in The Divine Comedy. Allegories are often political, for example the fable of George Orwell's «Animal Farm».⁵⁷

An epithet describes something or someone with characteristics that are more interesting and prominent than they are in reality: «snot-green sea» in Ulysses. Fixed epithets are made up of repeated use of a word to describe a single object. Argumentative epithets are used by orators in short arguments. Smear words connect a derogatory name or meaning for someone or something.⁵⁸

Irony is a stylistic device that uses two opposing meanings: direct and contextual. The effect of irony is the disparity between what is said and what is meant. Irony is not the same as humor; it often expresses irritation, pity or regret. Irony is often used to convey a negative meaning.⁷

Situational irony describes a situation, the outcome of which is different than someone's expectations: a thief on the run gets into a getaway car but it's out of gas.

Dramatic irony is used when the audience is aware of what's going on, but the characters are not. First, the audience is informed; second, the information is used to develop curiosity and emotional resonse from the audience; finally, resolution happens when the character finds out the information.

Verbal irony is when a character says one thing but means another. This can involve sarcasm, over- or underexaggeration and rhetorical questions. Verbal irony challenges us to look deeper into the character's motivation.⁵⁹

A metaphor is a stylistic device that identifies one object with another, based on similarity. Metaphors can be genuine (unexpected; «His voice was a dagger of corroded brass») or trite (commonly used; «floods of tears»). Genuine metaphors are often used in poetry and emotive prose. Trite metaphors are often used in newspaper articles, oratorical style, and scientific language. The main function of metaphor is to create vivid and expressive images.⁷

Spoken language is used in dialogue, written language in monologue. It involves the human voice, gestures, and intonation. Written language lacks these features and must compensate with more explicit language. The two varieties have distinct features, such as morphology, vocabulary, and syntax. Spoken language uses contracted forms, like isn't, can't, I'll. Spoken and written language have different vocabularies, with colloquial and bookish expressions.⁷